Abstract

Today's scientists go to meetings and symposia armed with cards to distribute to colleagues, to make connections that may one day come in handy. Inevitably, the receiver's eye is directed to the letters at the end of the name, to verify the qualifications of their new acquaintance. In both industry and academia, credentialism is the pervading qualifier. But what of the multitude of scientists who have excelled, to the highest levels of our respect, without that all-important doctorate?

1. Gertude Elion (1918-1999)

Physiology or Medicine, 1988: Awarded jointly to Elion, George Hitchings, and James Black "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment." Trudy Elion's accomplishments are truly remarkable, as she is one of only six female Nobel laureates (about 3%) in Physiology or Medicine. Even more astonishing is the fact that her highest degree is that of master of science, awarded in 1941 by NYU, and the fact that the work that led to the Nobel Prize all took place within a drug company, Glaxo Wellcome. At one point Elion attempted to get her doctorate from Brooklyn Polytechnic; however, when given the ultimatum "your job or your degree," she said good-bye to the Ph.D. Since then, with mentor Hitchings by her side, she has been responsible for the discovery of acyclovir, which forever changed the drug discovery antiviral paradigm; pyrimethamine (a malaria drug); trimethoprine and azathioprine (antibacterials); and allopurinol (for treatment of gout). She was also head of the Department of Experimental Therapy at Glaxo, and received 25 honorary doctorates.

2. Peter Medawar (1915-1987)

3.& 4. Allan Cormack (1924-1998) and Godfrey Hounsfield (1919- )

Physiology or Medicine, 1979: "For computer-assisted tomography." Although Cormack and Hounsfield - a South African physicist, and a British engineer - had never met and had no schooling in medicine or biology, they jointly won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their independent discoveries leading to the first CAT scanning machines. Cormack received an M.S. in crystallography in 1945, and after studying for some time at the famous Cavendish Laboratory, he finally settled at Tufts University in 1956. In 1980, after being awarded the Nobel the previous year, Tufts appointed Cormack a university professor and awarded him an honorary doctoral degree. On another continent, Hounsfield served in the RAF as a radar technician before studying engineering at Faraday House and ultimately joining EMI Ltd. in 1951. Hounsfield's idea for CAT scanning was born of his knowledge of computers and pattern recognition, though the actual inspiration came during a long walk through the countryside in 1967. In 1975, Hounsfield was awarded the Lasker Award, sometimes considered a predictor of future Nobelists - as was indeed the case.

5. Chandrasekhara Raman (1888-1970)

Physics, 1930: "For his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him." In 1907, when Raman obtained his M.A. degree in physics, scientific opportunities for an Indian in India were extremely limited. Raman therefore accepted a position as accountant in the Indian Civil Service, where he worked for a decade. He conducted experiments in his spare time at his home and was eventually offered a position at Calcutta University, which he gladly accepted (at half pay). The effect that Raman announced in 1928 describes the diffraction of light as it passes through a medium. Even though he won the Nobel Prize, Raman's greatest achievement may have been to help usher in a new era of Indian science by, among other things, creating the Raman Research Institute.

6. Martin Ryle (1918-1984)

Physics, 1974: Awarded jointly to Ryle and Antony Hewish "for their pioneering research in radio astrophysics: Ryle for his observations and inventions, in particular of the aperture synthesis technique, and Hewish for his decisive role in the discovery of pulsars." Along with Hewish, Ryle was the first astronomer to win the Nobel Prize. Ryle's invention of the radio telescope allowed sensitive and accurate observations into deep space, detecting objects long past the range of optical instruments, and making possible the mapping of distant radio galaxies. Following his graduation from Oxford in 1939, he helped develop radar for the RAF, but did little with his physics background until 1948 when he was offered a lectureship at Cambridge. Although Ryle never earned a doctorate, he did receive three honorary doctorates, including one from Oxford, along with many other awards and medals.

7 & 8.  Sir William Henry Bragg (1862-1942) and Sir William Lawrence Bragg (1890-1971)

Physics, 1915: "For their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays." In their short 2-year collaboration, this father-son team of physicists created a new field of study, X-ray crystallography. William Henry constructed the first X-ray spectrometer, and William Lawrence provided the theoretical basis for crystal structure analysis. Interestingly, the elder Bragg showed his scientific promise rather late in life, while the younger Bragg was only 25 years old when he and his father were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize. Both scientists held professorships at the Cavendish Laboratory and both received numerous honorary doctorates and other awards. In William Henry Bragg, Gwendolen Bragg states, "To each, science was an art, research an adventure, and life an experimental journey which they lived with enthusiasm."

9. Francis Aston (1877-1945)

Chemistry, 1922: "For his discovery, by means of his mass spectrograph, of isotopes, in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole-number rule." Following high school, Aston continued his education at Mason College, but financial hardship eventually forced him to leave school to take a job in a local brewery, although he continued his scientific endeavors in a home laboratory, building much of his own equipment. He later worked as an assistant to Sir J.J. Thomson at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. Aston was awarded multiple honorary doctorates and the Medal of the Royal Society.

10. Nils Dalen (1869-1937)

Physics, 1912: "For his invention of automatic regulators for use in conjunction with gas accumulators for illuminating lighthouses and buoys." As an engineer and inventor rather than scientist, Dalen was not the typical Nobel laureate, and there was some initial friction over his nomination. However, in the words of Alfred Nobel, the prize was to be awarded to those who "have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind," and his invention saved many a sailor's life. Although he was responsible for a great many inventions, most pertaining to his agricultural background, none had so great an impact as the automatic lighthouses.